Waking on September 12th, 1998, to dawn breaking on the mountains behind Lhasa in Tibet, my mind went back to that same day a year earlier when I left Aras an Uachtarain to become United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.
Images of the warmth tinged with sadness of my last presidential visit to Focus Ireland at George's Hill in Dublin's inner city and the inspiration I drew from Sister Stan - and so many others - dedicated to their struggle for the protection and promotion of human rights within Ireland.
Images of the brief formal ceremony of resignation which brought to a close the seven unforgettable years in which I had the greatest honour I believe a person can ever have - to serve as President of your country and its people.
Carrying the briefcase on to the plane, I needed Nick's arm to control the emotion.
That evening in Geneva, together with my adviser, Bride Rosney, and rejoined by my younger son, Aubrey, who had already started school there, we raised a glass to the past and to the year ahead.
Exactly a year later I was to be surprised by my four UN colleagues into joining them in raising another glass. We had travelled from Tibet to Shanghai, ending our working programme with a formal dinner.
Instead of heading straight for my bed, I was led astray to the 41st floor of the hotel which boasted a bar called the Blue Heaven. A bottle of champagne was produced.
So, what kind of year was it that we were celebrating - or should I say commemorating?
The post I had undertaken was known to be extremely difficult and complex. My Office colleagues had been through a very troubled time and morale was low. I knew it would be daunting but nothing could have prepared me for the culture shock of the UN bureaucracy itself.
Adjusting to it was painful and initially debilitating, but I was wonderfully supported by Bride Rosney's ability to find a practical way forward through the barriers and even more so by her uncompromising spirit: she never bowed to the pressures to adjust to that bureaucratic approach and timescale (it took 331 days from my decision to readvertise to have two vacant senior management posts filled) and she had an incredible capacity to combine a warm human relationship with our colleagues and a scathing running commentary on the system itself.
In many ways the first substantive speech I made as UN High Commissioner - the Romanes lecture in Oxford last October - reflected both these frustrations and my growing sense of the potential of the UN if it really committed itself to converting the rhetoric of human rights language into a practical reality for the millions who so desperately need it. My suggestion that many in the UN had "lost the plot" in having lost the focus on protection and promotion of human rights as a core institutional value inevitably led to comment.
Yet what was encouraging was the speed with which that speech was perceived as a rallying call for the very approach which the Secretary-General, Kofi Annan, had been advocating in his reform proposals published the previous July. The Oxford speech was subsequently published by the information and publicity section of the UN, the DPI. More importantly, the UN programmes and agencies have engaged with me in a remarkable adaptation of their own approaches, to incorporate explicit commitments to the promotion and protection of human rights in their ongoing work.
The reform package of the Secretary-General, as adopted by the General Assembly, provided my office with an enormous challenge and opportunity. The whole issue of integrating human rights in the work of the UN is facilitated by my membership of all key Committees. This is central and very time-consuming, not least because of the need for frequent visits to New York.
I have no illusions - it will be a long and winding road - but there have been positive developments. For example we have recently appointed a colleague as human rights officer for Southern Africa based in UN House in South Africa. I believe that this is the way forward in terms of integrating human rights within the activities of UN agencies and having a good human rights resource person readily available to UN colleagues in their field activities.
Looking back at this first year it is clear - as management consultants recently confirmed - that my appointment added greatly to the demands and expectations on the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). Member-states (who, of course, collectively constitute the UN and by their resolutions at the General Assembly and elsewhere control its activities) continue to place additional mandates on the OHCHR to be achieved "within existing resources".
But resources have been pared drastically in recent years - and not just in terms of finance. For example, several human rights experts wished to work with me and, aware of the lack of resources, offered to come and work as volunteers. I had to refuse their help as a resolution of the General Assembly prohibits gratis personnel.
Inevitably a new High Commissioner brings not just a change in personality and style but also in pace, vision and priorities. The Office's public and UN profile is higher, bringing a dramatic increase in volumes of mail, requests for assistance, information and opportunities. The Secretary-General's reform initiatives have promoted interest in human rights throughout the UN system, and the OHCHR is being looked at to contribute in many new ways. The dangerous under-provision of personnel and finance has resulted in many staff working longer, harder and under greater pressure. The recent decision by the Deputy High Commissioner, Enrique ter Horst, to vacate his post is particularly regretted in this context.
As I stated from the beginning I see it as part of giving leadership in human rights to be a voice for victims. In recent months, for example, I have spoken out on behalf of indigenous peoples in the Chiapas region of Mexico, the victims of conflict in Kosovo, the Chinese ethnic population in Indonesia, and the restrictions on freedom of movement of Aung San Suu Kyi in Myanmar. Speaking out is part of the work but I am also trying to follow through by increasing the number of our human rights officers monitoring on the ground in Kosovo, and have concluded an agreement with Indonesia which will allow us to have a human rights resource person based in Jakarta with access to East Timor.
Another critical, frequently invisible and sometimes misunderstood part of my work involves "quiet diplomacy". In many instances I speak privately to representatives of governments applying pressure to achieve an improvement in peoples circumstances. There is at times a gap in understanding, where the media, NGOs and other partners may be critical of apparent lack of action but where much is going on behind the scenes.
Staff development and Partnership
Throughout the year much of my focus has been on in-house structure and staffing issues. I have always stressed that I did not want to build a large office but one that could become very effective and professional. It was important to build morale and engage in staff development so that we had the internal capacity to move forward. The complexities were enormous as there are staff in Geneva, New York and in over 20 field presences on four continents.
In August I welcomed the heads of all our field operations to Geneva for a weeklong session. This was the first time that such an event had been organised and it proved extremely useful - for those working in the field and in Geneva. It is an activity that I would wish to see happen on a regular, perhaps even yearly, basis.
To develop further with a minimum but effective staff, strategic partnerships are necessary - with member-states, NGOs, regional, national and local organisations - and a critical part of my time investment is with partners and potential partners.
A good example of involvement with partners is exemplified by two key meetings which brought together a variety of actors. The first was in Stockholm and addressed the question of "Lessons learned in the Great Lakes Region of Africa" and the second, held in Bonn, was on the topic of "Strengthening of Human Rights Field Operations".
At both meetings the clear responsibilities of the international community were addressed; I must say that I believe there are lessons to be learned in relation to interventions and that we, the United Nations and the international community in general, have failed to learn them in the past. Serious mistakes have been made, we must recognise them and ensure that they are not repeated. We must also ensure that the donor community does not become divided - and allow governments to play one donor off against another, or indeed play governments off against the United Nations.
I make no apologies for saying that the promotion and protection of human rights should be at the heart of all financial donations to countries in need. It is quite clear that human rights violations are frequently the precursor of a breakdown in society, and that they must be avoided in the rebuilding process.
Field Operations and Country Issues
Given the vacuum following the departure of my predecessor I felt it necessary to visit some of our field operations as early as possible, and to do so in the context of visiting other countries in their regions. Due to the special interest in Somalia, Rwanda and other African countries I developed during my time as President of Ireland, inspired by the huge commitment of Irish aid and development workers, it was perhaps an obvious choice for me to select that region for my first field mission.
At the end of a series of meetings in Rwanda in December I was critical of the government's lack of progress in resolving a number of human rights issues, stressing the need for the people and the government of Rwanda to take ownership of their own human rights situation and pledging the support of my office to help them achieve this.
Subsequently my deputy, Mr ter Horst, spent several days in Kigali trying to secure an extension for my Office's mandate, but the government was not able to agree to the inclusion of monitoring. We would have wished to develop jointly an exit strategy which would have allowed for international monitors to continue their work while internal capacity-building was taking place.
Now our focus is on supporting the work of the Commission of Human Rights Special Representative on Rwanda and we hope, in time, to be able to enter into technical co-operation projects with the government of Rwanda. I regret that it has not been possible for me to accept the recent urging of the Rwandan authorities to pay a further visit to the country but I would wish to do so on a suitable occasion in the not too distant future.
En route to Rwanda I visited Uganda where I met the Human Rights Commission - an independent body that is clearly making its mark and is well respected in its society. Meeting the members, hearing of their work and the challenges they face, strengthened my determination to support such institutions. I met the members again in early July at the Second African Conference on National Human Rights Commissions, held in South Africa.
In many ways Africa and Asia have taken the lead in this important development, and I hope that the similar Commissions to be established as a result of the Peace Agreement between the British and Irish governments will meet the exacting standards contained in the Paris Principles and have the same powerful impact on society that so many in the south have done.
The specific challenges faced in Cambodia identified it as the field operation for my next visit, which I undertook in January 1998. It was my first visit to that country and I left with feelings of regret of it being all too short, and frustrated at not being able to get out of the capital.
The challenges being faced by that country, and many of its neighbours, are all too clear and the international community must focus on discharging its responsibilities to the people of the region. Issues such as aids, trafficking in women and children, sex tourism, child prostitution do not respect boundaries and require co-ordinated and sustained action by all.
One of my most important missions took place from September 5th to 15th, the first-ever visit of a High Commissioner for Human Rights to China. Unfortunately the visit was marred for me, and for The Irish Times, by the decision to revoke Conor O'Clery's permission to accompany me to Tibet. This invited grief from "The Old Lady of Fleet Street" that I would never have initiated.
I always envisaged my visit as part of a process and was pleased that a Memorandum of Intent was signed by which my Office will launch a technical co-operation programme in China. With the co-operation of the Chinese authorities, a needs assessment mission from Geneva will visit China within six months.
Vice-Premier Qian informed me that China intends signing the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights later this month. I welcomed this development and encouraged the government of China to consider the speedy ratification of this covenant and the one on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights it signed last October.
During a fruitful meeting with President Jiang, he described the enormous efforts undertaken by his government to combat the devastating floods. I came away from my visit to China struck by the scale of issues confronting the Chinese authorities, impressed with important economic and social progress made over the past few years but more aware than ever of the enormity of what remains to be done.
Before my departure I provided the Chinese authorities with detailed materials including an aidememoire cataloguing recommendations made by human rights specialists. I urged the authorities to respond positively to these recommendations. In short, I believe the Chinese government and my Office have begun a process to improve the situation of human rights in that great country.
My next visit to a field operation, later this month, will take me to South America and in particular to my office in Colombia. Again I will have an opportunity to see my colleagues interacting within the country but also to learn something of the regional context as I will be participating in a regional meeting in Costa Rica. I believe this is critical - more and more the interdependence of states is highlighted and I come to understand the true meaning of our global village.
Regional Arrangements
Since Ireland joined the European Economic Community in 1973 I think most people would recognise the benefits of being part of a regional grouping. This is a structure that I am pleased to see developing within the field of human rights. I have attended several important regional meetings and I will outline the significance of just two to illustrate my point.
In Japan I took part in a symposium organised by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the UN University and attended by participants from 15 countries in the region - government officials, NGOs, academics - but all human rights activists. An excellent chairman's summary noted the participants' affirmation that the Universal Declaration's content "remains valid in today's world and must be strongly supported" and that "the declaration has . . . attained the position of the minimum international human rights standards to be respected by all states, non-state actors and individuals".
In February I visited Tehran for the workshop for countries in the Asia Pacific region that my office was organising. The outcome gives a clear framework for future activities, the 36 countries who participated agreeing to have annual meetings to review their progress in the four areas: national human rights plans, human rights education, national human rights institutions and strategies for economic and social rights and the right to development. When one realises that countries as diverse as North Korea and South Korea, China, Cyprus and Australia participated the extent of progress is remarkable.
Commission on Human Rights
The Commission on Human Rights meets every year for a six-week period - it is the intergovernmental body which addresses human rights issues and which my Office services. I took the fact that it opened on the eve of St Patrick's Day as a good omen. For me it was a fascinating, if exhausting, learning experience. I was heartened to see the degree of high level participation, with the presence on various dates of some 70 heads of state or government or foreign ministers.
There was a welcome and very clear focus on economic, social and cultural rights - since my appointment I have been determined to encourage a proper balance in addressing of rights: a balance between the focus on civil and political rights and that on economic, social and cultural rights. A forum held during the Commission on the development of benchmarks for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights has initiated an important process which we will return to in the very near future.
A second forum which focused on the main-streaming of human rights within the United Nations and which was chaired by the Secretary-General was particularly fortunate to have President Havel and Eli Wiesel participate - and both stimulated and challenged all the heads of the UN agencies and departments who were present.
There was one particularly emotional moment at the Commission. After 13 years of work the Declaration on Human Rights Defenders was adopted without a vote - a most appropriate way for the Commission to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Universal Declaration. Regrettably the euphoria of its adoption was short lived. Within days we had the brutal murders of a notable human rights lawyer in Colombia and of a church leader in Guatemala who for so long had shown such personal commitment and leadership in the field of human rights. What did the Defenders Declaration mean to them? We must take steps to ensure it is implemented to provide some degree of protection to all human rights defenders and in particular to that most important group of human rights defenders - the unnamed, unknown, unsung individuals working at local level in both promotion and protection whose lives are frequently at risk.
Immediate Challenges
Unfortunately there will always be challenges in the field of human rights. Many are in response to negative actions but there are also positive and proactive steps that can be taken. One I am particularly looking forward to arises from a request made at the opening of the Commission on Human Rights by the Foreign Minister of Iran. He asked me to organise Islamic commentaries/perspectives on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
My Office has worked in close co-operation with the Organisation of Islamic Conference and a number of missions in Geneva. This process is in train and the most public element of it will be a two-day seminar in Geneva on November 9th and 10th. Invited experts will prepare papers and enter into an exchange of views which will be open to the public but participation confined to experts. With the growth of Islam throughout the world this process is very timely.
A year ago I started my work with the United Nations by attending the opening of the General Assembly, apprehensive but excited. This September a more seasoned and determined Mary Robinson attended this year's opening. I discussed with the President of the General Assembly and the chairmen of the relevant Committees arrangements for the five-year review of the Vienna Declaration and Programme for Action on Human Rights, the 50th anniversary of the Universal Declaration, and the adoption of the Human Rights Defenders Declaration.
I am particularly pleased that they agreed to my proposal to have a joint meeting of two key Committees on human rights, poverty and development. This will take place on October 16th. I am convinced of the historic importance of this session of the General Assembly regarding human rights, to continue the ground-breaking work undertaken by the highly successful session of the Commission on Human Rights. We must work together to preserve the important advances made during the course of this year.
This was a difficult but rewarding year - and I did not find a better word than daunting to describe the challenges of the post of High Commissioner for Human Rights. As I look back there are many images. A wonderful moment was being with President Nelson Mandela on December 10th as we commenced the 50th anniversary year of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Was there a more appropriate place to be than in the company of one of the great human rights activists of our time who is now a head of state?
However, I regret that the dominant images in my mind are of two shocking examples of man's inhumanity to man: the Teul Slung Museum in Phnom Penh and the genocide sites in Kigali. These are reflected in sites such as Auschwitz and Hiroshima I have also visited. They reinforce the urgency of the situation we all face. How many times has the world said "never again"? How many more times will we allow it to be said? The responsibility belongs to us all.