Golf for FitnessGolf is superior to other sports in that it succeeds in keeping adults and the elderly, physically active on a regular basis. According to Gi Magnusson of the Karolinska Institute and College of Physical Education in Stockholm, this can probably be attributed to the intense appeal of the game.

Whatever the reason, the important thing is that it works. "Playing golf while walking the course is an excellent way to maintain and increase aerobic fitness," said Dr Magnusson.

He went on: "Aerobic fitness is important for our endurance. A high fitness level in combination with a physically active lifestyle will maintain health while decreasing the risk of cardiovascular disease and early death.

"Ultimately, aerobic fitness is gradually reduced as a consequence of ageing. But golf is unique in the way it motivates middle-aged and elderly individuals to walk a fairly long distance on a regular basis."

Several studies have proved that continuous walking programmes create physiological health benefits and increased aerobic fitness. And except for those who play the game out of a buggy, golf clearly involves a great deal of walking in distances ranging from 50 to 150 metres.

How does this compare with a continuous walking programme? Can golf be classified as aerobic training for fitness in the middle-aged, given that a golfer is active for roughly four hours while playing 18 holes, which is comparable to a 45-minute fitness class?

According to Dr Magnusson, 10 men and nine women, all of them middle-aged, were studied playing golf. And despite the short walking intervals, it was established that the golfers' exercise intensity varied between 40 and 70 per cent of their maximum aerobic power.

This intensity may be classified as being low to moderate and has the potential to increase the aerobic power. It should be noted that these golfers had a high aerobic fitness for their age.

On the other hand. a sedentary individual, would most likely have reached an even higher relative exercise intensity while playing golf. So, it would appear that middle-aged golfers get an effective workout just by walking the course.

Against this background, it should be noted that research indicates the risk of coronary artery disease decreases as physical activity increases. The aim should be to accumulate 30 minutes or more of aerobic activity - e.g. brisk walking around the golf course - on most days of the week (Health Education Board for Scotland, 1997).

Walking can also improve your stamina, provided it is done at a minimum of 70 per cent effort - enough to get you slightly out of breath. For most of us, this happens when walking up a slight gradient carrying a golf bag.

In summary, any walking is better than none, but longer and faster walks can lead to greater health and fitness improvements. So the message is: keep golfing.

Taking good pictures

We are familiar with the sensation. While preparing to hit a drive, all we can see are the out-of-bounds stakes on the left, beckoning a hook. Unless, of course, we happen to be left-handed golfers, in which case the trouble will loom on the opposite side.

According to Richard Coop of the University of North Carolina, even the game's elite professionals are not immune to such negative feelings. Usually their post-round phone call begins: "Doc, I had some bad pictures out there today."

So, how are these negative thoughts and images to be handled on the course? Dr Coop responded: "First, you cognitively restructure the situation. This is sometimes called reframing. Specifically, you change your perception of the shot facing you at the time."

He explained: "This is done in three ways.

1, You replace the negative image by calling to mind the memory of a good shot you have hit from this tee in previous rounds. Go to your memory bank of well-played shots and cue up a tee-shot which has split the middle of the fairway in past rounds. Replay this shot several times.

"2, Put the shot into perspective. No golf shot is a matter of life or death, regardless of the importance it seems to have. Cary Middlecoff, the great American player, once said that when he faced a critical shot in a champion- ship event, he put the shot into perspective by saying to himself, `What is the worst thing that could happen? I could shank it out of bounds but even then I have some money in the bank, a wife who loves me and my dog won't bite me when I go home.' Getting perspective on a shot reduces the tension in your swing.

"3, Before starting your back-swing, make your last look at your intermediate target a foot or two in front of your ball, rather than back down the fairway at your landing area. Even if your last look is at the middle of the fairway, you will still pick up the out of bounds in your peripheral vision. Don't take the chance of this. Make your last look at your intermediate target and swing with confidence."

Passion for Green

A recent study in the US found that American players have a significant preference for ultra-green golf courses, the sort of image one associates with Augusta National. But according to James R Hansen of Auburn University, this fixation is endangering the future health of the game.

"The experiment involved a group of only 70 individuals and was made up entirely of American golfers with an average age of 67.5 years," he said. "No data exists to compare with golfers of different ages or elsewhere in the world.

"One might speculate that if the experiment were conducted in Britain, where courses are not as artificial, the data would not show such a strong preference for ultra-green conditions. It is unlikely that the control group is typical even of American golf. But it is atypical in a very instructive way."

He explained: "Senior citizens who have lived through the significant changes in playing conditions over the past half-century, are less likely to demonstrate an obsession with lush conditions or to be so influenced by the media. So, if a group of senior golfers want their courses so green, is this reflective of golfers as a whole?

"Environmentalists assert that a turning away from the demand for lush playing conditions is essential for the future health of golf. Reduced water and chemical use would curtail public apprehension about the environmental impact of golf and lower the cost of play.

"Many in the golf industry worry that golf will suffer if course maintenance standards are scaled back. But there is even more reason to believe that the sport will survive more flexible standards and perhaps grow even stronger."

He concluded: "Short of an environmental crisis, scaling back will happen only if golfers sacrifice their passion for green. Without the help of the golf industry, it will not happen."